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Movement, behavior, and predation on Chinook salmon in the Bering Sea
Information about the spatial distribution, movement, vertical distribution, and predation of fishes can help in understanding a species’ population dynamics and in informing its management. To add to knowledge gained from a recently completed study on 17 Chinook salmon in the Bering Sea, we propose a continuation of our study in which another 10 large, immature Chinook salmon (>60 cm) will be captured near Dutch Harbor and tagged with pop-up satellite archival transmitting tags. While externally attached to the fish, the tags will measure and record ambient light (for daily geoposition estimates), depth and temperature data. On preprogrammed dates, the tags will release from the fish, float to the surface of the ocean and transmit the recorded data to overhead satellites, which will then be retrieved by project investigators. Spatial distribution, movement, depth distribution, thermal environment, and predation of the tagged Chinook salmon will be described and related to regional environmental factors. These analyses should provide a more complete understanding of oceanic phase of large, immature Chinook salmon in the Bering Sea, which may be useful for understanding its population dynamics and susceptibility to interactions with groundfish fisheries.

• PI: Andrew Seitz
• Full Title: Further examination of the movement, behavior and predation of Chinook salmon in the Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Continuation of our study in which another 10 large, immature Chinook salmon (>60 cm) will be captured near Dutch Harbor and tagged with pop-up satellite archival transmitting tags.
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• Award: $212,683

Gel enhancement of Alaska pollock surimi
The purpose of our proposal is to recover Alaska pollock fish bone and upgrade the value of this solid waste as a natural source of functional and nutritional nano-scale calcium for use in Alaska pollock fillet and surimi block. Recovery of Alaska pollock fish bone for use as a natural and nutritional source of highly bioavailable calcium is a new approach to reduce fish processing solid waste and upgrade the value of Alaska pollock surimi and fillet. By recovering fish bone of Alaska pollock harvest, overall resource utilization will be improved. After recovery, the fish bone will be ground into nano-scale, which has a high bioavailability and could be used to reincorporate nutritional calcium to fish fillets that is lost during processing. In addition injecting nano-scale fish bone when prepared in a marinade with Alaska pollock surimi protein in salmon fillets has been shown to improve the eating quality of frozen fillets; maintaining more fresh-like qualities of cooked frozen fillets than untreated fillets. The researchers hypothesize that similar quality improvements are possible when injecting nano-scale fish bone into Alaska pollock fillets. Nano-scale fish bone (NFB), if included before freezing, could also improve gel texture as well as calcium enrichment of Alaska pollock surimi. Processors from Unalaska or Bering Sea will be interviewed to determine production-scale feasibility of upgrading fish bone from a discarded solid waste product to utilization as a nutritional and functional ingredient. If successful, the annual harvest value of the Alaska pollock fishery could be significantly improved.

• PI: Quentin Fong
• Full Title: Utilization of nano-scale fish bone for gel enhancement of Alaska pollock surimi and as Calpro injection marinade made from surimi fish protein for improved nutritional and eating quality of Alaska pollock fillets
• Research Goals: Recover Alaska pollock fish bone and upgrade the value of this solid waste as a natural source of functional and nutritional nano-scale calcium for use in Alaska pollock fillet and surimi block.
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• Award: 124,941

Decline in Pacific halibut size at age
Size-at-age of Pacific halibut has declined significantly since the 1990s. For instance, the average weight of a 20-year-old halibut declined from more than 100 pounds in 1993 to less than 40 pounds in 2011. The decline in size-at-age corresponds to a period of declining halibut recruitment and spawning biomass, reductions in catch limits for the directed commercial halibut longline fishery, and declines in recreational and subsistence catches of halibut in Alaska. Also associated with these declines are increasing concerns about bycatch of halibut taken in other groundfish fisheries in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea. The causes of changes in halibut size-at-age are very poorly understood. We seek PCCRC funding to allow us to test hypotheses about (1) the effects of environmental and ecological variability on halibut growth, and to (2) quantify the implications of fishery effects, such as size-selective fishing, bycatch, and wastage on changes in size-at-age, which have implications on biological reference points used in the halibut stock assessment, as well as harvest policy. Our proposed PCCRC project builds off a multi-investigator study funded by the North Pacific Research Board (NPRB) in which we are involved. The two-year NPRB study funds our investigation of the effects of environmental and ecological variability on growth. The proposed one-year PCCRC study would allow us to fully incorporate findings from our NPRB collaborators into our growth models, and would fund our research to examine the cumulative effects of size-selective fishing.

• PI: Gordon Kruse
• Full Title: Environmental, ecological, and fishery effects on growth and size-at-age of Pacific halibut
• Research Goals: Test hypotheses about (1) the effects of environmental and ecological variability on halibut growth, and to (2) quantify the implications of fishery effects, such as size-selective fishing, bycatch, and wastage on changes in size-at-age, which have implications on biological reference points used in the halibut stock assessment, as well as harvest policy.
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• Award: $76,618

Freshness and nutritional value of Alaska pollock products and byproducts
The seafood industry is a vital source of revenue for the state of Alaska. Within this industry, the pollock fishery accounts for ~$343 million in annual revenue with ~2.8 billion pounds of pollock harvested. Pollock production accounts for ~54% of Alaska’s total fish harvest and it is important that quality products be delivered to insure maximum monetary returns. One aspect of pollock quality and changes to quality that has not been well defined is how postmortem changes occurring between catching and processing affect the quality and nutritional value of pollock products. In addition, a comprehensive data set on the nutritional composition of pollock products does not exist and could provide additional value to pollock products. Therefore, the objectives of this proposal are to determine the postmortem changes occurring to pollock fillets at time intervals of 0, 24, 48 and 96 hours between harvest and processing. Nutritional composition of pollock products is also needed. For this reason fatty acid, vitamin, mineral, and amino acid content will be determined for pollock products. To accomplish this, a variety of analytical techniques will be employed to determine the nutrition and chemical composition of pollock fillets, milt and roe. This research will also result in a comprehensive data set defining the contributing factors of quality loss in pollock fillets occurring between times of harvest and processing. A data set encompassing the nutritional components of pollock products will also be obtained. For all data sets, comparisons will be made between fish harvested in the fall and fish harvested in the spring.

• PI: Quentin Fong
• Full Title: Nutritional composition differences of Alaska pollock during and between Bering Sea A and B seasons
• Research Goals: Determine the postmortem changes.  occurring to pollock fillets at time intervals of 0, 24, 48 and 96 hours between harvest and processing.
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• Award: $158,042

Shelf-stable pet treats from pollock skins
Pollock skins will be used to develop shelf-stable pet treats formulated with a blend of natural antioxidants. Two production processes, rolled and sliced, will be evaluated, for two blends of commercially available natural antioxidants and a control. The products will be evaluated for their nutritional value and shelf life with the goal of developing a pet treat product with a minimum shelf life of six months. The successful development of a pollock skin pet treat would create an additional market for pollock skins with potential of generating additional revenue to Alaska pollock processors. Test products (rolled pet treats and sliced pet treats) will be manufactured from 7.5 kg blocks of pollock skins frozen at sea. The findings of this project would be readily applicable to the utilization of Pacific cod skins for production of pet treats and, perhaps with few modifications, to development pet treats using skins from other commercially important whitefish species harvested in Alaska.

• PI: Quentin Fong
• Full Title: Shelf-stable pet treats from pollock skins
• Research Goals: Two production processes, rolled and sliced, will be evaluated, for two blends of commercially available natural antioxidants and a control. The products will be evaluated for their nutritional value and shelf life with the goal of developing a pet treat product with a minimum shelf life of six months.
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• Award: $96,757

Effects of Asian pink and chum salmon on Alaskan chum and Chinook salmon growth
Ongoing declines of Alaskan stocks of Chinook and chum salmon have prompted concern statewide, particularly in western Alaska where these species are important resources. While a number of potential causes have been hypothesized for these declines, it is suspected that processes associated with the marine phase of the salmon life history play an important role. These include natural (e.g., climate cycles) and anthropogenic (e.g., climate warming, overharvest in target and non-target fisheries) factors. The large number of hatchery fishes released into the North Pacific have prompted concern that competition for marine resources has contributed to these declines. Here, we address this issue by conducting both a synthesis of existing data and novel analyses of growth indicators (insulin-like growth factor and scale data) to examine the potential role that Asian populations of pink and chum salmon negatively influence growth of western Alaskan populations of Chinook and chum salmon in the Bering Sea.

• PI: Megan McPhee
• Full Title: Determining the effects of Asian pink and chum salmon on growth and maturation of Alaskan populations of chum and Chinook salmon in the Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Conducting both a synthesis of existing data and novel analyses of growth indicators (insulin-like growth factor and scale data) to examine the potential role that Asian populations of pink and chum salmon negatively influence growth of western Alaskan populations of Chinook and chum salmon in the Bering Sea.
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• Award: $125,037

Replacing ethoxyquin in fishmeal
Ethoxyquin is the standard antioxidant used to stabilize fishmeals. While it has been used successfully for several decades, its safety has been called into question. Aquaculture users of fishmeal are often required to withdraw feeds two weeks before harvest to purge ethoxyquin from edible tissues. Dog foods virtually ban the use of ethoxyquin in their manufacture effectively excluding Alaska fishmeals from being an ingredient source. This project will investigate potential replacements for ethoxyquin from the range of natural antioxidants currently used in the food industry. Antioxidants such as mixed tocopherols, rosemary extracts, ascorbic acid and combinations will be used to treat freshly produced at-sea fish meals. Untreated, ethoxyquin treated and the natural antioxidant containing meals will be stored at ambient and abuse temperatures for up to 8 months. At two-month intervals, meals will be evaluated for quality. Lipid and protein stability will be measured. Proximate composition, amino acid composition and color will be determined. A cost analysis will be completed to compare relative benefits of the various antioxidants.

• PI: Charles Crapo
• Full Title: Replacing ethoxyquin in fishmeal: Is it possible?
• Research Goals: Investigate potential replacements for ethoxyquin from the range of natural antioxidants currently used in the food industry.
• Award: $101,793

Steller sea lion reproduction and survival
This proposal to the PCCRC/NPRB is for Phase 2 of a 3‐phase project to determine reproduction, survival, and depredation in Steller sea lions in the western Aleutian Islands (WAI) in relation to the eastern Gulf of Alaska (eGOA). Phase 1 was a very successful, collaborative twelve‐year endeavor that included LHX tag development, refinement of capture, holding and surgical implantation techniques specifically for Steller sea lions, extensive physiological and behavioral impact assessments, and ultimately deployment of LHX tags in 36 individuals. We will deploy second generation implanted Life History Transmitters (LHX‐ 2 tags) into up to 10 pre‐reproductive female western Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) captured and implanted at the Chiswell Island rookery (eGOA) and transported to the Alaska Sea Life Center for temporary captivity. LHX‐2 tags record data throughout the host’s life, record parturition events in females, and after death of the host and extrusion from decomposing, dismembered, or digested carcasses transmit stored data via satellite. Post‐mortem data will yield age at primiparity and lifetime births in females, as well as age and cause of death (predation vs non‐predation), and body mass in case of non‐predation deaths. All animals will be monitored after release via external satellite transmitters and through direct video‐based observations at the Chiswell Island rookery to determine pupping in subsequent years. Phase 2 objectives are to (1) validate LHX‐2 temperature‐based parturition detection against direct visual observations; (2) add to the eGOA sample size for animals >=3 years to increase the statistical power of a regional comparison to the WAI; (3) facilitate the transition to remote LHX tag deployments in the WAI by validating less invasive surgery enabled by smaller LHX‐2 tags and by commencing ship‐board surgeries immediately after capture – here still combined with recovery monitored under controlled conditions. The objectives of Phase 2 will be essential to enabling Phase 3. In Phase 3 (not requested here) we will quantify survival, depredation and reproduction in the WAI to determine: (1) do survival and predation schedules differ between stable and declining regions? (to allow testing recently proposed density‐dependent age structured predation rates); (2) does age at primiparity differ between regions? (3) do birth rates differ between regions?

• PI: Jo-Ann Mellish
• Full Title: Reproduction, survival and depredation of Steller sea lions from the declining western Aleutian Islands in relation to the stable eastern Gulf of Alaska region - Phase 2
• Research Goals: This proposal to the PCCRC / NPRB is for Phase 2 of a 3‐phase project to determine reproduction, survival, and depredation in Steller sea lions in the western Aleutian Islands (WAI) in relation to the eastern Gulf of Alaska (eGOA).
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• Award: $190,765

Modeling multilayered fisheries management
We propose to develop and apply ecological and economic modeling tools for Bering Sea fisheries, by (a) building on NOAA’s current multi-fishery stock model by increasing its spatial and temporal resolution, (b) modeling fleet fishing choices based on costs and revenue opportunities, given ecological conditions and regulatory constraints; and (c) using the models to examine ecological and economic implications of alternative combinations of management regulations. The project team has unique ecological and economic expertise and capacity to accomplish these complex interdisciplinary objectives.

• PI: Gunnar Knapp
• Full Title: Modeling biological and economic implications of layered management measures for Bering Sea groundfish fisheries
• Research Goals: Develop and apply ecological and economic modeling tools for Bering Sea fisheries, by (a) building on NOAA’s current multi-fishery stock model by increasing its spatial and temporal resolution, (b) modeling fleet fishing choices based on costs and revenue opportunities, given ecological conditions and regulatory constraints; and (c) using the models to examine ecological and economic implications of alternative combinations of management regulations.
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• Award: $399,999

Vital rates in Russian Steller sea lions rookeries
The endangered western Distinct Population Segment (DPS) of Steller sea lions (SSL) has declined by almost 90% through its range, reaching its nadir in 2000. By the late 1990s and early in the 21st century the decline had slowed and in some areas populations appeared be on the increase. This is not the case for SSL in the Western and Central Aleutians and in the nearby Commander Islands (Russia), where abundance continues to decline. This may be due in part to low reproductive rates, which has led to new fishing regulations in the Aleutian Islands that may cause significant economic consequences. Unfortunately, there presently are no empirical data available on the vital rates of sea lions in the western or central Aleutian Islands. However, just across the border into Russia, lie the Commander Islands, less than 200 miles from the westernmost United States SSL rookery. Steller sea lions from the Commander Islands are genetically similar to Aleutian Islands SSL and are also part of the Western SSL “stock”, and SSL abundance on the Medny Island (Commander Islands) rookery has shown similar instability as in the western Aleutians. We have conducted observations on Medny for over 10 years, and unlike in the Aleutian Islands, we have direct measurements of SSL vital rates at this and 7 other rookeries in Russia. Studies of SSL from the Medny Island rookery (Commander Islands) may provide valuable insights for comparison to the western Aleutians because the Commanders have been protected by a 30-mile no- fishing zone since the late 1950s. We propose to use demographic data collected in the Commander Islands (where SSL pup counts have been decreasing) and in the Kuril Islands (where SSL populations are increasing) over the years 2000 to 2012 to compare and contrast areas of differing population trends. We will utilize multiple hypothesis testing and model-based inference to investigate the relationships between SSL abundance trends and vital rates and prey, fishing activity and environmental conditions as well as presence of potential competitors (e.g. northern fur seals) and predators (killer whales). Our results should lead to insights about the causes of declining populations and the potential for fisheries interactions, and should be very applicable to the search for an understanding of the SSL situation in the western and central Aleutian Islands.

• PI: Russel D. Andrews
• Full Title: The effects of variation in fishing restrictions and environmental conditions on vital rates of Steller sea lions from Russian rookeries with contrasting population trends
• Research Goals: Review and critically evaluate literature, reports, models and hypotheses that relate to factors that could be affecting vital rates of SSL in the Commander and Kuril Islands. Determine the age specific vital rates for the Commander and Kuril rookeries for the period 2000-2012. Compile data on key environmental factors (e.g. oceanographic conditions such as SST, primary productivity, sea surface height anomalies) and fishing effort to go beyond the initial description of how vital rates vary for the Commander and Kuril Islands SSL rookeries.
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• Award: $180,083

Behavior of transient killer whales
Killer whales have been implicated in the decline of the western stock of Steller sea lions. Killer whales are known to prey on Steller sea lions in other parts of the North Pacific but no observations have been made of predation on Steller sea lions in the western and central Aleutians, though observation effort has been relatively sparse. During National Marine Mammal Laboratory (NMML) surveys (from 2001-2010) ‘transient’-type killer whales have been regularly seen in two areas in the central and western Aleutians: (1) the Delarof Islands-Tanaga Island and (2) Kiska and the Rat Islands, with abundance estimated at ~90 whales. A population of killer whales of this size could easily cause the decline or prevent the recovery of Steller sea lions in this region if they were a primary prey of transient killer whales there. Therefore, it is crucial to determine if transient killer whales in that region routinely prey on Steller sea lions. We have been conducting three lines of research on transient killer whales in the Aleutian Islands –stable isotope analysis of biopsy skin samples, satellite tagging, and acoustic recorders deployed at Steller sea lion rookeries. Nitrogen stable isotope values of transient killer whales in the central and western Aleutians show two dramatically different patterns – some whales have values consistent with substantial predation on Steller sea lions while other whales show values too low for that to be possible. Location-only satellite tags (N=4) have also elucidated two dramatically different foraging strategies, with some whales moving ~1000nm south of the Aleutians (far outside the range of Steller sea lions), and with other whales remaining in a single location over deep-water at the head of a submarine canyon for an entire month. Both foraging strategies suggest transient killer whales may spend considerable time not foraging for Steller sea lions in this region. With other funding, NMML will be deploying acoustic recorders at three Steller sea lion rookeries in the central and western Aleutians to monitor killer whale occurrence. In this proposal we are asking for funding to deploy Mk10-A satellite-linked depth tags on transient killer whales in the western and central Aleutians to track their movements and, importantly, record their diving behavior. We will be able to keep costs down (by a significant amount) by taking advantage of an opportunity to piggy-back on a NMML Steller sea lion pup branding and condition cruise scheduled for late June/early July of 2013. We are also requesting funding for travel costs in order to participate in the cruise. With information provided by the satellite tags, we can estimate what proportion of the time transient killer whales stay within the range of Steller sea lions. Diving information will allow us to estimate what proportion of the time transients in the region are pursuing a deep-diving foraging strategy, which we assume is time not spent foraging on Steller sea lions. The location information will inform us about what proportion of time transients spend foraging in proximity to Steller sea lion rookeries and haul-outs. Finally, with additional biopsy samples, we will also improve our estimate of what fraction of transient killer whales have stable isotope values consistent with diets containing a substantial proportion of Steller sea lions. Collectively these data will provide substantial information for quantifying killer whale predation on Steller sea lions in the central and western Aleutians.

• PI: Russel D. Andrews
• Full Title: Investigating the foraging and diving behavior of transient killer whales in the central and western Aleutians to determine predation on Steller sea lions
• Research Goals: Describe transient killer whale foraging in the western and central Aleutian Islands, and test the hypothesis that they forage on squid in addition to marine mammals.
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• Award: $45,130

Augmenting current Steller sea lions projects with additional field time
This project funds a third week of a research cruise designed to: 1) assess the feasibility of using hip- based unmanned aircraft (UAS) to conduct Steller sea lion (SSL) surveys and 2) collect scat/spew samples over a larger section of the Aleutian Islands. With this additional time, the ideal cruise could originate in Adak where it will head west to Attu and then return to Dutch Harbor. The extended cruise will allow for the ship to reach virtually all the areas of interest for SSL research in the Western Aleutian Islands. This extension will provide National Marine Mammal Laboratory’s (NMML) NPRB Project with the needed additional week of ship time to adequately collect samples throughout the Western Aleutian habitat to improve the geographic diversity of the collected samples thereby increasing the overall value of the effort. Additionally, the joint cruise will allow NMML researchers to gain first hand exposure to the potential for UAS to assist them in their surveys while giving the UAS researchers ideal opportunities for learning about SSL research needs and how the UAS can be used to study and sustain the SSL population.

• PI: Greg Walker
• Full Title: Augmenting two existing Steller sea lion projects with additional field time
• Research Goals: Assess the feasibility of using hip-based unmanned aircraft (UAS) to conduct Steller sea lion (SSL) surveys. Collect scat/spew samples over a larger section of the Aleutian Islands.
• Award: $135,691

Walleye pollock maturity
Maturation rate is an important parameter for determining the optimum exploitation strategy for a fish stock. For eastern Bering Sea walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) maturation rates were developed in the late 1970s by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). These rates were updated by a study conducted by the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( ����Ӱҵ) in 2002-2004; similar estimates for maturity-at-age were found, although interannual and geographic variations were identified. In a follow- up analysis of the ����Ӱҵ results, NMFS examined interannual variation and found that younger pollock may contribute to the spawning stock at a rate that is higher than currently assumed in the eastern Bering Sea. For the Gulf of Alaska, estimates of maturity-at-age are generated from data collected by the NMFS echo-integration trawl surveys in winter. The average age-at-maturity is used for stock assessment modeling for the Gulf of Alaska, despite interannual variability in maturity. This ����Ӱҵ-NMFS proposal seeks to more fully explore the maturation of eastern Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska pollock by analyzing maturity data collected by at-sea fisheries observers and from NMFS survey trawls throughout the spawning season over the geographic range occupied by these stocks. Analyses will include the estimation of a pollock sexual maturation schedule, including temporal and spatial variation in pollock maturity. The proposed study will also carefully evaluate the current visual key used to classify maturity stages using histology. Finally, the implications of our findings on annual stock assessment (e.g., estimation of spawning stock biomass) and implications on fishery management will be analyzed.

• PI: Gordon Kruse
• Full Title: Variations in size of maturity of walleye pollock and implications on harvest strategies
• Research Goals: Explore the maturation of eastern Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska pollock by analyzing maturity data collected by at-sea fisheries observers and from NMFS survey trawls throughout the spawning season over the geographic range occupied by these stocks. Evaluate the current visual key used to classify maturity stages using histology.
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• Award: $74,966

Diet and nutrition in harbor seals
Oscillating cool and warm climatic periods have the ability to alter the basic structure and components of an ecosystem, which can impact the dietary base of a predator. Changes to diet can have significant impacts on predator populations.

A time series of harbor seal scat samples were collected from Tugidak Island, Alaska, during the summer from 2001 to 2009. Hard-part remains from scats were identified to the lowest possible taxon and approximate prey composition of the diet was determined from frequency of occurrence (FO) and biomass (BM) calculations. The nutritional profile of estimated diets was determined using a prey nutritional database developed from proximate analyses of various prey found in Alaskan waters.

Diet profiles constructed by BM estimations appear to provide a more realistic representation of actual diets due to biases associated with FO data. BM prey contribution of salmon species correlated with sea surface temperature (SST; 0.703, p < 0.10) and cephalopod (-0.663, p < 0.10), gunnel (-0.722, p < 0.05), and Gymnocanthus spp. (-0.753, p < 0.05) correlated negatively with SST. The plane of nutrition was calculated by BM estimations; protein (13.47-17.49% of diet), lipid (1.57-4.90% of diet), and gross energy (0.65-1.37kcal/g of diet) of the average diet varied across collection years. Lipid content and gross energy of diets fluctuated within a collection year relating to pupping and molting periods.

Combining the prey database and plane of nutrition across years provides insight regarding the role of nutrition in evaluating changes in pinniped populations. Identification of the components of harbor seal diets allows for detection of potential competition for fish resources.

• PI: Shannon Atkinson
• Full Title: Evaluation of diet composition and plane of nutrition of free-ranging harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from Tugidak Island, Alaska in warm and cool climatic periods
• Research Goals: Describe the diet of harbor seals from Tugidak Island from 2001 to 2009. Assess differences in diets of harbor seals during the breeding or molting periods. Compare the relative importance of prey species in diets calculated using two different calculation methodologies (ssFO and BioM). Calculate the nutritional profile of harbor seal diets utilizing the MIXIT-WIN program. Determine if dietary changes to prey contribution or nutritional profile correlate with oscillations in SST anomalies recorded in the waters surrounding Tugidak Island and throughout the Gulf of Alaska during this time series.
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• Award: $29,992

Salmon initiative
In recent years, Chinook salmon returns to AYK drainages did not hold up to pre-season expectations and spawner-recruit models. In response to poor returns, fisheries management in Alaska resorted to unprecedented restrictions to subsistence users, such as 50% reduction in fishing time and a no-buy policy for Chinook salmon during summer chum commercial openings in the lower Yukon River. Such unpredictability causes economic hardship for residents dependent upon these fisheries; thus there is keen interest in understanding the processes that govern recruitment variability in AYK chinook salmon populations (AYK SSI 2006). Freshwater growth is thought to be a critical determinant of survival of juvenile survival (Holtby et al. 1990, Henderson and Cass 1991). In general, larger juvenile salmon are better able to use and compete for resources, are vulnerable to fewer predators, and are able to migrate to the resource-rich marine environment earlier and at larger size (reviewed in Quinn 2005). The consequences of freshwater growth for survival in the marine phase are less clear, with some studies reporting positive effects of juvenile size on marine survival (Parker 1968, Beamish and Mahnken 2001) and other studies finding marine survival to be decoupled from freshwater growth (e.g., Holtby et al. 1990, Ward 2000). Thus, a better understanding of the processes that link freshwater conditions to recruitment from egg or spawning adult are needed.

Study #1: 
This study will relate infection with Ichthyophonus to a variety of indicators of reproductive success. The biomass of gametes, sperm viability, and egg quality (as measured by proximate analysis) and hatching rate of fertilized eggs will be compared between infected and non-infected Chinook salmon. Offspring of infected fish will be compared to those of non-infected fish to determine whether growth, development, and condition differs. Finally, blood chemistry and cortisol levels will be investigated as indicators of detrimental effects of infection, and for their potential as non-lethal assays of infection. This study connects the quality of the spawning adults to its effects on their juvenile offspring, including their size and potential for growth. To augment the resources requested from the PCCRC, we are asking for $50,000 from the Restoration and Enhancement fund of the US and Canada Yukon River Panel. This proposal, entitled, "Ichthyophonus in Chinook salmon – Continuation of a baseline in Emmonak and Eagle, Alaska and potential links to fecundity and blood chemistry". To augment the resources requested from the PCCRC, we are asking for $50,000 from the Restoration and Enhancement fund of the US and Canada Yukon River Panel. This proposal, entitled, "Ichthyophonus in Chinook salmon - Continuation of a baseline in Emmonak and Eagle, Alaska and potential links to fecundity and blood chemistry" is to support field sampling at these two locations, and the involvement of three undergraduate fisheries students in the project.

Study #2: 
This study will use archived scales to construct time series of freshwater growth of Chinook salmon from the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. These time series will be used to assess the overall effect of freshwater growth on survival to the age of reproduction. Additionally, juvenile Chinook salmon will be reared and monitored in a laboratory to validate relationships between scale and otolith characteristics and juvenile growth and body size. These studies will provide a context for interpreting field observations of juvenile fish size and condition, and connect the processes affecting size and growth examined in the previous studies to their overall effect on the recruitment of adult fish.

• PI: Milo Adkison
• Full Title: Freshwater growth and survival in AYK Chinook salmon: maternal health, predation mortality, and the ultimate effects on stock productivity
• Research Goals: Understanding of the processes that link freshwater conditions to recruitment from egg or spawning adult.
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• Award: $475,416

Killer whale predation on juvenile Steller sea lions
This project will allow us to directly quantify predation on juvenile Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska. We have deployed newly developed, satellite linked Life History Transmitters in 15 juvenile Steller sea lions to date, with an additional 12 animals scheduled for 2008 / 2009 under existing funding. Life History Transmitters allow the determination of individual animal survival and allow distinction of predation from non-traumatic causes of mortality, from satellite transmitted post-mortems. Data returns from four of 15 initial deployments prove the viability of the concept, and suggest that predation by killer whales may be the single greatest cause of juvenile sea lion mortality, and that more than 50% of females may be consumed by predators before primiparity. Placing our preliminary findings into the context of a conceptual framework we have developed to integrate bottom up and top down effects, suggests that implications of this level of predation on recovery of the species may be profound, and may require changes more substantial than those that in the past likely contributed to current population status. Here we request support for the vital continuation of satellite monitoring for LHX tag data returns.

• PI: Jo-Ann Mellish
• Full Title: Consummate and consumed predators: Assessing killer whale predation on juvenile Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska
• Research Goals: Directly quantify predation on juvenile Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska.
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• Award: $15,000

Impacts of ocean acidification
The ocean plays a critical role in the global carbon cycle: the amount of carbon stored in the ocean is roughly 50 times greater than that in the atmosphere. At the surface, the ocean interacts constantly with the atmosphere to absorb and release carbon dioxide. Once absorbed, a carbon atom will remain in the ocean for hundreds of years, circulating from the ocean's surface to its depths and back to the surface again. With the rise of atmospheric CO2 concentrations from the pre-industrial level of 280 parts per million to 385 parts per million in 2008, the amount of carbon in the ocean has increased substantially and rapidly. This carbon dioxide has combined with water to form carbonic acid, making ocean surface water 30 percent more acidic on average. Depending on the extent of future CO2 emissions and other factors, the Intergovernmental Panel on climate change (2007) predicts that ocean acidity could increase by 150 percent by 2100.

Potential impacts of ocean acidification on harvested species like Pollock are uncertain. One area of concern is acidosis, or the build-up of carbonic acid in body fluids, which can disrupt growth, respiration and reproduction. Despite our lack of knowledge, the trend of ocean acidification is undeniably concerning, especially considering the devastating consequences that acid rain had on freshwater ecosystems during the 20th century. Furthermore, the ocean is currently undergoing other potentially dangerous changes, including warming, sea level rise, pollution and overfishing. The rapid pace at which these changes are occurring, and the fact that they are happening simultaneously, threatens to disrupt the ocean's well-balanced physical, chemical and biological processes faster than they can adapt.

Changes in ocean pH may have an affect on reproductive success and early development of Pollock in the marine environment. This could lead to devastating effects on the economic viability of this important fishery as well as the ecosystems of the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. Decreasing Pollock stocks could have a cascading impact through the food web, affecting the sustainability of higher tropic level organisms like the Steller Sea Lion. In order to gain some insights into this area we propose to answer the following questions; (i) Does acidification show a significant effect on standard metabolic rate of larval Pollock? (ii) Which metabolic enzymes (PK, LDH, and CS) does ocean acidification significantly effect, and how? (iii) What is the current and future state of ocean acidification in the Gulf of Alaska and in the Bering Sea, particularly in areas of Pollock recruitment? Our hypotheses for this study are that; (i) There will be a significant increase in the standard metabolic rate of larval Pollock when exposed to lower pH. (ii) There will be a significant upregulation of metabolic enzymes as the environmental pH decreases. (iii) In the past two decades the pH of the World’s Ocean has dropped by 0.1 – 0.25 pH units. It is likely that a similar drop in pH has occurred in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. Increasing levels of atmospheric CO2 will likely exacerbate this problem during the next decade and beyond. This project will combine laboratory analyses of Pollock incubated at lower pHs as well as the synthesis of pH data throughout the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska.

• PI: Jeremy Mathis
• Full Title: Present and future impacts of ocean acidification on juvenile walleye pollock metabolic processes and growth rates
• Research Goals: Does acidification show a significant effect on standard metabolic rate of larval Pollock? Which metabolic enzymes (PK, LDH, and CS) does ocean acidification significantly effect, and how? What is the current and future state of ocean acidification in the Gulf of Alaska and in the Bering Sea, particularly in areas of Pollock recruitment?
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• Award: $56,793

Feeding patterns and prey selection in juvenile pollock and cod
The goal of this study is to examine feeding patterns of pelagic late larval and early juvenile walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus), collected in early summer of an exceptionally cold year (2008) on a large scale station grid ranging from Unimak Pass to the vicinity of St. Lawrence Island in the eastern Bering Sea. Previous studies have found that growth, and thus feeding success, during the first summer of marine fishes are important conditions for overwinter survival and, subsequently, recruitment success. This proposed study will benefit greatly from available data on summer zooplankton abundance, composition, and biomass, and on fish energy content, which were collected as part of the Bering Ecosystem Studies (BEST) and the Bering Sea Integrated Research Project (BSIERP), respectively; however, to date no funding is available to examine the feeding patterns of these co-occurring, economically and ecologically important groundfish species. The proposed study will form the basis for a M.S. thesis at the School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences. As such, the proposed study will directly follow the PCCRC guideline by supporting research and education on pollock and other groundfish species; specifically, we will address priority 2 Alaska Pollock Stock Dynamics by examining the relationship of secondary production on pollock (and cod) recruitment. Results from this study will provide first insight into resource allocation and the potential for dietary overlap and may allow the assessment of the probability of food competition between early pelagic life stages of walleye pollock and Pacific cod in early summer during an exceptionally cold year in the eastern Bering Sea.

• PI: Nicola Hillgruber
• Full Title: Feeding patterns, prey selection, and potential dietary overlap of age-0 pelagic larvae and juveniles of walleye pollock and Pacific cod
• Research Goals: Examine feeding patterns of pelagic late larval and early juvenile walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus), collected in early summer of an exceptionally cold year (2008) on a large scale station grid ranging from Unimak Pass to the vicinity of St. Lawrence Island in the eastern Bering Sea.
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• Award: $92,038

Maternal investment impact on Steller sea lion pups
There is a well-established link between the mammalian immune and endocrine systems. These finely tuned interactions are required for the survival and health of an individual and are regulated by circulating hormones, which are in turn influenced by nutrition, body condition, and a host of environmental factors. The overall goal of this project is to determine if changes in maternal investment, body condition, and circulating hormone levels results in measurable changes in the health and survival of Steller sea lion (SSL) pups, as measured through the immune system.

As part of an ongoing long-term monitoring and research effort, researchers observe the Chiswell Island rookery via a remotely-operated video system, which provides an in-depth assessment of maternal investment as well as pup well-being and survival. During three breeding seasons (2005, 2007, and 2008) pups ranging in age from 5 to 38 days old were measured, weighed, and permanently marked allowing for identification of mother-pup pairs, determination of exact pup ages, and assessment of maternal investment. Blood samples were collected from 61 pups (24 female, 37 male) for the measurements of a suite of blood-borne components, including complete blood cell counts, lymphocyte proliferation, serum chemistries, contaminants, and circulating levels of IL-6. Some of these measurements have been made, however this proposal requests funding for the remaining endocrine and immune assays. Serum will be used to determine circulating levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), ghrelin, cortisol, aldosterone, leptin, and thyroid hormones. The complete suite of measurements will allow a comprehensive evaluation of health parameters that will be used to compare with the level of maternal investment and survival of SSL pups.

• PI: Shannon Atkinson
• Full Title: Impact of health and maternal investment on survival of endangered Steller sea lion pups
• Research Goals: Determine if changes in maternal investment, body condition, and circulating hormone levels results in measurable changes in the health and survival of Steller sea lion (SSL) pups, as measured through the immune system.
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• Award: $66,609

Workshop:Spatial Distribution Pollock
We propose to hold a 4-day workshop in summer 2009 to synthesize relevant information and modeling of the spatial structure and dynamics of the walleye pollock population in the Bering Sea. The synthesis is needed to address issues related to ecosystem effects of one of the world’s largest fisheries on a finer temporal and spatial scale than is currently available. The workshop will review information from scientific surveys and commercial fishing vessels about the spatial distribution of pollock and identify relevant factors that influence the distribution seasonally and annually. Advances in spatial modeling of the dynamics of fish populations will be presented to determine if they are relevant to improving the current pollock stock assessment model and management practices (e.g., refined spatial allocations of TAC). Finally, these reviews will be used to determine if a directed field study such as a mark-recapture study is needed to enhance current knowledge of movement patterns and changes in abundance.

• PI: Terrance J. Quinn II
• Full Title: Workshop on spatial structure and dynamics of walleye pollock in the Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Evaluate the magnitude of variability among seasons, years, and locations in FA composition of principal forage species supporting seabirds and marine mammals in the Bering Sea.
• Award: $73,089

Fatty acid composition of forage species
Knowing what animals eat is perhaps the single most important requirement for understanding relationships of predators to prey, how food webs, communities, and ecosystems are organized, and why populations fluctuate in abundance over time and space. The most powerful new approach for estimating predator diets in marine ecosystems employs fatty acids (FA), which are passed up the food chain in predictable ways and can be used to quantitatively estimate predator diets at each trophic level. For a given predator, this requires a catalog of the FA composition of all likely prey. The overall efficacy and accuracy of the FA method of diet analysis is well established, yet important questions remain of how potential spatial and temporal variability in FA composition of individual prey species affect diet estimates. Our goal is to evaluate the magnitude of variability among seasons, years, and locations in FA composition of principal forage species supporting seabirds and marine mammals in the Bering Sea. We will build upon our recent studies of diets of seabirds and fur seals using FA, which have not had the resources to investigate these issues, and will fully exploit a large collection of forage species obtained in collaboration with the National Marine Fisheries Service. Products from this study— an extensive catalogue of FA signatures of the principal forage species in the Bering Sea, coupled to assessments of the magnitude of variability in FA and its significance to quantitative diet estimates—will be available to others wishing to employ FA analysis.

• PI: Alan Springer
• Full Title: Fatty acid composition of forage species in the Bering Sea: variability and its effect on estimating predator diets using quantitative fatty acid signature analysis
• Research Goals: Evaluate the magnitude of variability among seasons, years, and locations in FA composition of principal forage species supporting seabirds and marine mammals in the Bering Sea.
• Award: $73,089

Purification of pollock oil
The beneficial health effects of a diet rich in long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids (LC-ω3- PUFA’s) have been fully described in recent years. Marine oils are an important dietary source of LC-ω3- PUFA’s, being especially rich in two of the most important fatty acids of this class namely, EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5ω3) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid; 22:6ω3). Due to its nutritional value there is growing interest in refining fish oil for human consumption. In Alaska there are large quantities of fishery byproducts being used for the production of fish meal and fish oil. Most fish oil produced in Alaska is crude or unrefined, thus it may only serve as ingredient for animal feed unless further steps are taken to handle specific fishery byproduct components as raw materials for the production of food. In this case, unrefined human grade fish oil can be produced and may be further purified to meet market specifications for human grade oils. The main goal of this research is to investigate the applicability of short-path distillation for the purification of commercial pollock oil, and human grade pollock liver oil. Pollock oils will be subjected to short-path distillation for deodorization, and removal of free fatty acids and other impurities. The major advantages of using this technology, compared to traditional fish oil purification steps, are that it reduces the use of chemicals during processing, reduces the number of steps needed to refine fish oils, and reduces oil loss during purification improving processing yields.

• PI: Alexandra Oliveira
• Full Title: Purification of pollock oil using short path distillation
• Research Goals: Investigate the applicability of short-path distillation for the purification of commercial pollock oil, and human grade pollock liver oil.
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• Award: $84,266

Effects of long-term tracking on Steller sea lions
Marine mammal research often requires marking animals in order to collect important long-term ecological data. Various field research authorizations state that markings should not cause the animal pain or distress, nor should the marking impede the animal’s ability to perform natural behaviors. The research proposed here will be the first to evaluate the combined behavioral and physiological responses to hot- iron branding and surgical implantation of Life History Transmitters (LHX tags) in juvenile Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus). Data collected will identify changes in behaviors key to the animals naturalistic functioning, and from that, a set of handling recommendations for captive and field research can be made. These data will also be used to develop objective pain assessment methods for sea lions and to apply these methods in identifying and reducing pain during invasive marking procedures in field research.

• PI: Jo-Ann Mellish
• Full Title: Assessment of the behavioral and physiological effects of long-term tracking methods in Steller sea lions
• Research Goals: Evaluate the combined behavioral and physiological responses to hot- iron branding and surgical implantation of Life History Transmitters (LHX tags) in juvenile Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus).
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• Award: $17,775

Bering Sea temperatures and walleye pollock
In 2005, fishery landings in Alaska were 5.7 billion pounds, or almost 60% of the total pounds landed in the U.S. (NMFS 2007). Approximately 40% of all U.S. fish and shellfish landings occurred in the eastern Bering Sea. The nation’s top seafood port in 2005 was Dutch Harbor-Unalaska, accounting for 888 million pounds of landings worth $283 million before value-added processing. These numbers make fishing efficiency and long-term sustainability key elements to Alaska’s economic growth.

The purpose of this proposal is to conduct a feasibility test to determine the usefulness of near real-time temperature data from the Bering Sea to commercial fishers and fisheries managers. It is anticipated that knowledge of Bering Sea bottom temperatures and vertical profiles of temperature will help determine fishing locations more efficiently, and will be important to fisheries managers.

Bottom and water column temperatures will be acquired using free-drifting profiling floats. For this feasibility test, and to keep costs down, we will deploy and acquire data from two floats with temperature data transmitted weekly to the PIs. Following transmission and receipt of data, we will post it as soon as possible on the Alaska Ocean Observing System web site. We will determine whether data maps faxed to commercial fishers is also useful, building on past positive AOOS experience. Following this study, the full data set of temperature can be used in fisheries models, and used to establish a baseline of modern temperature records from the fishing grounds of the Bering Sea.

• PI: Mark Johnson
• Full Title: Bering Sea temperatures and their relationship to walleye pollock fisheries: a feasibility study of year-round near-real time data acquisition
• Research Goals: Conduct a feasibility test to determine the usefulness of near real-time temperature data from the Bering Sea to commercial fishers and fisheries managers.
• Award: $68,900

Causes of Northern Fur Seal Decline
Fur seals on the Pribilof Islands have been declining for 40 years, and losses since the early 1970s remain unexplained. A number of possible causes have been investigated. Some factors have been considered and rejected, and others are still being debated. Current leading hypotheses include effects of commercial fisheries and climate change on prey availability in the Bering Sea, and predation by killer whales. Steller sea lions, harbor seals and sea otters have also experience large population declines in areas that are important to northern fur seals (i.e., the western GOA, Aleutian Islands and the Bering Sea). Therefore, we propose to review the life history strategies and influential factors affecting northern fur seals in the Bering Sea, where they reproduce and raise pups, and in the N. Pacific, where female and juvenile fur seals migrate and over winter for about eight months each year. We will compare fur seal ecology to that of Steller sea lions, harbor seals and sea otters in the North Pacific to help evaluate which factors may be important in the fur seal decline on the Pribilof Islands. Such a review will enable us to make recommendations about hypotheses and questions that need further research. This literature review and critical evaluation will ultimately be of benefit to the conservation of fur seals, the rational management of commercial fisheries, and an understanding of the effects of climate change and predation on individual species and on marine ecosystems.

• PI: Alan Springer
• Full Title: What is causing the northern fur seal decline? A literature review and critical analysis
• Research Goals: Determine the cause of declines in northern fur seal declines.
• Award: $53,770

Genetics and population dynamics in Pacific ocean perch
Pacific ocean perch (POP) are the most abundant Sebastes rockfish species in Alaskan waters in both biomass and catch. They are distributed broadly along the Gulf of Alaska (GOA) and Bering Sea (BS) continental slopes. As for most rockfish species, POP do not mature at an early age; and they can live to very old ages. Rockfishes are viviparous; after POP larvae are released they may spend several months in the water column before they settle into more demersal habitats. An assumption made for many marine species, which have pelagic larvae and apparently mobile adults, is that their population structures extend over very broad reaches, possibly including much of the natural range. Recently, genetic studies of POP population structure have demonstrated that relatively strong divergence occurs between collections that were sampled at locations spaced about 200 km apart along the GGOAOA and BSBS continental slopes. The degree of divergence suggests that, although population structure is not defined by geographic or oceanographic boundaries, the limited net dispersion that occurs in both pelagic larvae and adults results in restricting the spatial scale of POP production to areas that are related to the average distance moved between birth and reproduction called neighborhoods. The spatial scale of neighborhoods (productivity units) is the geographic scale on which management should focus. We have nearly completed a large scale genetics study of adult POP samples (Palof, thesis research); and a genetics study of young-of-the- year POP juveniles is in progress (L. Kamin, thesis research). From those results we will be able to address questions about the extent of dispersion, and should be able to make preliminary estimates of neighborhood size. The questions we address here are the effects that harvest patterns exert on production and genetic structure of POP and, by extension, other species for which limited dispersion results in a neighborhood model of population structure, and the neighborhoods are much smaller than the management areas. To evaluate these effects, we will develop quantitative models that include information about dispersal, population dynamics, and exploitation and test the effects of different harvesting strategies, which will range from harvesting over the entire management area to harvests in a few limited areas with in the area.

• PI: Anthony J. Gharrett
• Full Title: Combining genetics and population dynamics to improve management of Pacific ocean perch
• Research Goals: Develop quantitative models that include information about dispersal, population dynamics, and exploitation and test the effects of different harvesting strategies, which will range from harvesting over the entire management area to harvests in a few limited areas within the management area.
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• Award: $235,014

Shark bycatch in the Bering Sea
The proposed project investigates the demography and trophic ecology of salmon sharks and Pacific sleeper sharks caught as bycatch in Bering Sea pollock fisheries. Salmon sharks and Pacific sleeper sharks are caught as bycatch at levels between 200 and 1,400 metric tons annually. It is not known if the shark population in Bering Sea can sustain these levels of removal. Very little is known about the life history of these sharks in the Bering Sea or about their role in the ecosystem as top level predators. The PIs propose to use a suite of mathematical population and ecological models to characterize the bycatch of sharks in the Bering Sea pollock fishery and quantify the potential impacts of bycatch on the population. Current information from the Gulf of Alaska on sharks suggests that only segments of the salmon shark population migrate in and out of Alaskan waters and that Pacific sleeper shark have a relatively small home range. This data suggests that the impacts of bycatch may not be consistent among life history stage, sexes, or species. The PIs propose to collect archived data regarding shark population structure and commercial bycatch. In addition the PIs propose to collect data aboard commercial pollock at-sea processors to estimate demographic, reproductive, and diet variables. Considerable support has been offered by the pollock industry, in particular by the At-Sea Processors, to adequately assess the potential impacts of shark bycatch so that informed mitigation efforts can be implemented. The outcome of this study will be an integrated understanding of ecosystem function and likely consequences of the removal of such levels of shark biomass in the Bering Sea.

• PI: Vincent Gallucci
• Full Title: Investigation of bycatch of sharks in the Bering Sea and their ecology
• Research Goals: Investigates the demography and trophic ecology of salmon sharks and Pacific sleeper sharks caught as bycatch in Bering Sea pollock fisheries.
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• Award: $72,378

Walleye pollock condition
Climate change is expected to alter the distribution and growth of fishes, though exactly what the effects will be is unknown. We will analyze otoliths and develop condition indices from Pollock that were collected in the Bering Sea (NOAA/BASIS) in summers 2002-2005. We will establish a baseline of geographic distribution (statistical and GIS maps) in relation to their associated water masses using otolith chemistry. Age, growth estimates, trace elements in otoliths, condition indices, and morphometric relationships will all be used to assess the health of these fishes. These values will be compared to the distribution of pollock, especially in relation to water masses. Water masses are expected to retain their distinctive characteristics, but be distributed northward with climate change. Therefore assessing parameters that indicate movement and quality of fish should have broad implications for effects of climate change.

Analyzing trace element signatures in fish otoliths is a chemical method to determine the distribution of a fish across time and space. The core of the otolith is the signature of the water mass where the fish were spawned and the edge is the signature of the water mass where the fish were collected. By analyzing pollock across large areas, we will enable future studies to track distribution changes, especially those associated with climate change. The results of this component will be available to managers to develop appropriate management strategies and risk vulnerability models to assess reaction fisheries to projected ecosystem changes in Arctic waters.

Developing condition indices for different fishes in the Bering Sea will allow us to better understand how ‘fit’ these fishes are within and among water masses. Monitoring the condition of fishes will provide evidence of fish movement into different water masses as their fitness changes in relation to changes in climate and water temperature. A decrease in overall fitness, determined by condition indices and morphometric measurements, may indicate that Arctic fishes are being displaced by sub-Arctic fishes moving to more northern habitats.

• PI: Michael Castellini
• Full Title: Walleye pollock stock distribution, growth, and condition in the Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Determining methods to assess body condition of pollock. These data will provide easy-to-use tools to assess condition in pollock and secondarily, a data-set from which to measure future changes in body condition.
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• Award: $52,000

Interactions between fishermen and Steller sea lions
Abundances of marine mammal populations changed dramatically in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska over the past century. Some of these changes are attributed to known ecological or human-caused events, but considerable uncertainty surrounds others, such as the decline of the western stock of Steller sea lions in the 1970s and 1980s. In the case of sea lions, one factor that has been identified but poorly studied is mortality from shooting by fishermen and others. Documenting information about the nature and extent of such shooting, together with its spatial and temporal characteristics, may provide valuable insights into the causes of the decline and the potential for recovery. In addition, commercial fishermen and regional residents are likely to have a great deal of knowledge about historical ecological events and conditions, including climate regime shifts, which have not been documented to date. Ecological knowledge is particularly sparse prior to routine fish stock assessment surveys in the 1970s (Bering Sea) and 1980s (Gulf of Alaska). Interviews that we conducted with selected fishermen and regional residents in the Kodiak, Cold Bay/Sand Point, and Seattle areas have added much information to our knowledge base. Apparent mortality by fishery based on these interviews suggests that, apart from the Shelikof Strait trawl fishery in the 1980s, shooting practices do not appear to have changed appreciably from the 1950s to the 1970s. Moreover, the timing of the decline in the western stock of Steller sea lions does not appear to be explained by patterns in fishing effort for fisheries in which significant levels of shooting were reported. Thus, while historical shooting mortality undoubtedly contributed to the decline of the western stock of Steller sea lions, it does not appear to have been the leading cause of unexplained mortality during 1974- 1990.

• PI: Gordon Kruse
• Full Title: Local and traditional knowledge of the nature and extent of interactions between fishermen and Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Reconstruct patterns of shooting prior to 1990, when shooting of sea lions to protect fisheries and gear became illegal, in order to evaluate the likelihood that such shooting played a substantial role in the decline.
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• Award: $90,000

Predation on Northern fur seals in the Pribilofs
During 2006, the St. George Island Traditional Council, in collaboration with the St. Paul Island Tribal Government, Community and Ecology Resources and the University of Alaska, Fairbanks collected baseline information on the distribution and behavior of predators on northern fur seals in the Pribilof Islands region. We used two methods to collect data; a logbook program in the local halibut fishery, and a local and traditional knowledge (LTK) survey. Emphasis was placed on assessing current and historical trends in the location, numbers and seasonality of killer whale and Steller sea lion observations, as well as the frequency and extent of observed predation events. During the 2006 commercial halibut fishery, 15 boats from St. Paul and 3 boats from St. George participated in the logbook program, representing nearly complete coverage of the local fleet. From mid-June through late-September, fishermen from ten boats reported 21 sightings of killer whales in both the near-shore waters around the Islands and at the continental shelf break, however no direct predation events were observed by local fishermen. A total of 48 LTK interviews were conducted and interviewees reported 29 sightings of killer whales during 2006. Predation on northern fur seals by both killer whales and Steller sea lions was reported during LTK interviews in observations spanning the period from 1976 to the present. Gear interactions with killer whales were reported by fishermen on local vessels, however killer whale depredation on halibut longline gear was only observed in the distant waters near the continental shelf break and not in the near-shore waters around the islands. Our results are consistent with the characterization of killer whale ecotypes in the eastern North Pacific and more recently in the eastern Aleutian Islands. Killer whale observations in the near-shore waters of the Pribilof Islands were consistent with the transient ecotype; they were observed in small groups, were observed preying on marine mammals and did not interact with fishing vessels or appear to consume fish. Killer whales encountered by Pribilof fishing vessels near the continental shelf-break were consistent with resident killer whales; they occurred in larger groups, interacted with fishing vessels and ate fish from halibut longlines.

• PI: Kate Wynne
• Full Title: Predation on northern fur seals in the Pribilof Islands a baseline study
• Research Goals: Collect baseline information about predation on fur seals in the near-shore region around the Pribilof Islands.
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• Award: $66,479

Changes in Steller sea lions skulls
Skulls from Steller sea lions (1950s to present) that are housed by NMFS, the University of Alaska, and the California Academy of Sciences will be measured to determine whether body size changed as sea lions declined and whether the changes are consistent between the eastern and western Pacific. These data will be used to test whether changes in body size are consistent with nutritional stress hypothesis or with the killer whale predation hypothesis.

• PI: Andrew Trites
• Full Title: Changes in Steller sea lions skull sizes: testing the nutritional stress and Killer Whale predation hypotheses
• Research Goals: Skulls from Steller sea lions (1950s to present) that are housed by NMFS, the University of Alaska, and the California Academy of Sciences will be measured to determine whether body size changed as sea lions declined and whether the changes are consistent between the eastern and western Pacific.
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• Award: $45,850

Essential larval and juvenile fish habitat
This project will increase our knowledge of habitat use by larval and juvenile fish in the nearshore waters of Alaska. Specifically, it will explore the possibility that nearshore kelp beds act as refugia for the larval and juvenile stages of commercially important fishes such as gadids and rockfish. PCCRC Research Priorities for 2005 include the identification of rockfish refugia and habitat areas of particular concern. In order to identify these specific types of habitat and to safeguard target and non-target rockfish species, we must first determine which habitat types are essential for the various life stages of these fish. From studies in areas such as California, it is well known that many species of rockfish inhabit areas that are structurally complex, such as rocky reefs and kelp beds. In Alaska, recent studies in nearshore waters have described gadid use in small (understory only) kelp beds (Abookire 2003), seasonal variation of adult fish in large kelp beds (Hamilton and Konar 2003, Calvert and Steckoll 2003) and variation of adult fish with water depth and algal cover around Steller Sea Lion haulouts (Hegwer 2003), information is still lacking on larval and juvenile fish use of algal habitats and other factors influencing fish composition and distribution. This project will further our knowledge of this understudied habitat in relation to the essential larval and juvenile life stages of these fishes in Alaska.

• PI: Brenda Konar
• Full Title: Structure of nearshore fish assemblages in relation to varying levels of habitat complexity
• Research Goals: Explore the possibility that nearshore kelp beds act as refugia for the larval and juvenile stages of commercially important fishes such as gadids and rockfish.
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• Award: $127,304

DNA markers for chum salmon
We developed or improved a number of methods for discovering and applying SNPs to make them more accessible to small laboratories and to reduce their cost. Specifically, we invented DEco-TILLING, a method for discovering useful SNPs rapidly and inexpensively; we improved a genotyping assay to screen SNPs in thousands of individuals for an order of magnitude less cost than the standard commercial assay; and we improved on a method to resolve the phase of SNPs linked close to each other in the same gene, which increases resolution and improves discovery efforts. We also demonstrated that the SNPs, which we discovered, are informative and increase precision of analyses of mixed stock fisheries of chum salmon over microsatellites alone. In a parallel study that was funded by the Bering Sea Fisherman’s Association and was leveraged by this PCCRC project, we developed a baseline for microsatellite loci for the same populations that we developed SNP baseline.

• PI: Anthony J. Gharrett
• Full Title: Developing DNA markers for the analysis of chum salmon bycatch in Alaskan trawl fisheries
• Research Goals: Develop new, cost-effective, and accurate genetic techniques to determine the origin of all chum salmon.
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• Award: $145,639

Metabolic performance of pollock
We performed one seasonal test evaluating the metabolic scope of walleye pollock collected from the wild in the late summer/fall. We performed these tests before water temperature control had been fully optimized in our wet laboratory and water temperatures were higher than desirable (10-11 °C). Critical swimming speeds (N=5) and oxygen consumption rates (N=4) of walleye pollock over a range of swimming speeds were determined.

We performed preliminary tests and are at present evaluating data gathered on a surrogate species, Pacific cod, acclimated to two different temperatures. Pacific cod were swum to exhaustion over a range of temperatures and preliminary analyses of these data suggest a trend for an increased critical swimming speed with increased water temperature.

• PI: Loren Buck
• Full Title: Seasonal variation in the metabolic performance of walleye pollock and the influence of water temperature
• Research Goals: Determine how the metabolic scope of walleye pollock is altered by seasonal physiological changes. Determine the extent that shifts in water temperature influence routine metabolic rate and swimming performance of walleye pollock. Correlate organosomatic indices of walleye pollock with changes in aerobic capacity & assess the use of organismal and plasma indices as bioindicators of fish condition in walleye pollock.
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• Award: $116,095

Food web dynamics in the Bering Sea
The source(s) of past and continuing population declines/fluctuations in both the eastern and western stock of many marine species remain unclear. One hypothesis is that survival of species has been limited by the availability, quality, and/or diversity of their prey. We propose to carry out a stable isotope study on salmon, forage and groundfish species in the eastern and western Bering Sea, within the Russian Economic Zone, to produce information relevant to understanding population changes and produce a map of trophic interactions. Predator-prey relationships are determined by analyzing the stable isotope ratios (d13C and d15N) found in muscle tissue from organisms and the suspected prey; this will help assess trophic interactions, foraging variability and spatial and temporal feeding information while at sea. Trophic differences between the eastern and western sides of the Bering Sea, particularly in forage fishes, may explain some of the population abundance differences in this region. The consistency and amplitude of the oscillations implied seasonal movement and feeding between isotopically distinct regions. We propose to utilize samples obtained from ongoing research, in an effort to produce food webs and seasonal records of forage fish, salmon and groundfish intra- and interannual diet and feeding locations.

• PI: Bruce Finney
• Full Title: Food web dynamics-Bering Sea
• Research Goals:
• Award: $75,16

Environmental predictors of pollock recruitment
A number of empirical relationships between oceanographic variability and pollock recruitment have been established or proposed by various authors. Based on these, the researchers assembled and processed data to construct a comprehensive set of biological and environmental indicators that relate directly or indirectly to these relationships.

1. Winter ice conditions and the cold pool.
2. Timing of ice retreat and the spring bloom.
3. Mixed layer dynamics and summer production.
4. Advection.

Researchers then examined the impacts of these environmental conditions on pollock survival and recruitment using statistical models, with the goal of quantifying the proportion of variability in recruitment that may be accounted for by environmental variability.

• PI: Brenda Norcross
• Full Title: Environmental predictors of walleye pollock recruitment in the eastern Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Develop statistical models linking walleye pollock recruitment in the eastern Bering Sea to climatic and oceanographic conditions at regional and larger spatial scales. Develop new environmental indicators that best reflect the potential mechanisms driving pollock recruitment.
• Award: $42,836

Ecosystem monitoring through subsistence harvests
The integration of traditional knowledge and current methods in scientific research is a crucial step for the understanding of an ecosystem undergoing change, such as the Bering Sea. Subsistence harvests can provide critical tissue samples, such as are needed for the investigation of the current role of contaminants in species declines. The Pribilof Islands are remote, and therefore it is extremely difficult for researchers to collect important samples from native species. It is equally difficult for members of the local community to access scientific information regarding their environment. This project represented the synergistic efforts of researchers and subsistence hunters. Contaminants levels were measured in multiple tissue types from northern fur seals an important subsistence species on St. Paul Island, Alaska. This work has resulted in one manuscript with a second possible manuscript pending additional sample analysis. Overall contaminant concentrations were not high, however the concentrations of different northern fur seal tissues varied considerably.

• PI: Jo-Ann Mellish
• Full Title: Ecosystem monitoring through the subsistence harvests of the Pribilof lslands, Alaska
• Research Goals: Collaborate with subsistence hunters to collect biological samples from the subsistence harvest of marine mammals and seabirds on the Pribilof Islands. Provide opportunities to augment scientific knowledge with traditional knowledge and vice versa. Measure contaminant levels in multispecies tissue samples collected during subsistence hunting events, including marine mammals and seabirds.
• Award: $58,800

Fish assemblages near Steller sea lions haulouts
Nearshore fishes around haulouts are potential prey for Steller sea lions, especially pups, as they learn to forage and supplement their milk diets during weaning. Visual surveys in July and November 2001, and March, May and July 2002 were used to quantify spatial and temporal variation in fish diversity and abundance around two Steller haulouts and two control sites. SCUBA divers sampled depths of 9, 15, 21, 27, and 33 m. Concurrent habitat surveys were used to quantify substrate, macroalga and benthic invertebrate cover. Steller haulout sites had fewer fish than control sites, but similar species richness and species composition at the 9, 15 and 21 m depths during the summer sampling periods. In winter, fish were fewer but more evenly distributed. Habitats were not significantly different between Steller haulouts and control sites. All sites had seasonal cover of canopy forming kelp, and overstory algal cover was heavy down to 21 m. At approximately 27 m the habitat changed abruptly from kelp­ covered bedrock to bare gravel and shell hash. While nearshore fish are an important component of Steller diets, results from this study do not indicate that fish assemblages at haulouts are substantially different from other headland sites.

• PI: Brenda Konar
• Full Title: Shallow water nearshore fish assemblages around Steller sea lion haulouts near Kodiak, Alaska
• Research Goals: Determine the abundance and composition of forage fishes around two Steller sea lion haulouts and two control sites. Concurrent habitat surveys were used to quantify substrate, macroalgae, and benthic invertebrate cover.
• ,
• Award: $6,004

Jellyfish impact on food web
Scientists conducted a field study of diet, distribution, abundance, and other parameters of jelly fish in the southeastern Bering Sea in summer 2000 with the goal of learning more about the role of jelly fish in food web production and ecosystem dynamics.

Jelly fish in the Bering Sea prey upon fish eggs and compete with juvenile and adult fish for prey. Thus, they may have direct and indirect negative impacts on stocks of commercial fish, including pollock and salmon.

• PI: Alan Springer
• Full Title: Jellyfish impact on food web production and ecosystem structure in the southeastern Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Understand the role of jelly fish in food web production and ecosystem dynamics in the southeastern Bering Sea.
• Award: $14,091

Maturation in pollock
Samples of maturity condition and fish length were collected during the commercial fishery in 2002 and 2003, and supplemented by similar data collected by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) during assessment surveys in 1989-2002. Length at fifty percent maturity was estimated spatially (within subareas) and temporally (annually) by logistic regression using maximum likelihood methods.

Fish matured at smallest sizes north of the Pribilof Islands and in years 1989, 1991, and 1995. Fish matured at largest sizes south of the Pribilofs and in years 2001 and 2002. Size at maturity is directly related to fish growth and appears to be density dependent—that is, fish mature at smaller sizes when pollock stock biomass is greater. Failure to use accurate estimates of size at maturity may have led to a 1.8 percent underestimate of spawning biomass in 2002 and a 9.7 percent underestimate in 2003.

• PI: Gordon Kruse
• Full Title: An examination of the maturation of walleye pollock in the eastern Bering Sea in relation to temporal and spatial factors
• Research Goals: Estimate spatial and temporal variability in the maturity size of walleye pollock in the eastern Bering Sea.
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• Award: $167,024

Producer cooperative organizations
A workshop was convened June 23-24, 2003, that brought together participants from universities, governments, and industry to discuss fisheries self-governance around the world. Among the fisheries discussed were Bering Sea pollock, Alaska weathervane scallop, Chignik salmon, Oregon whiting, New Zealand orange roughy, New Zealand scallop, New Zealand lobster, Atlantic Canada offshore scallops, British Columbia geoducks, Matjes herring, Oregon Yaquina Bay herring, and Hawaii lobsters.

Thee workshop also was attended by fishery managers from NOAA Fisheries, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council, and the Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission, as well as some members of the industry.

• PI: Gunnar Knapp
• Full Title: Producer co-ops and producer organizations
• Research Goals: Convene a workshop to discuss self-governing cooperatives in world fisheries.
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• Award: $25,000

Killer whales and the decline of Steller sea lions
Researchers used biopsy darts to collect shallow-depth tissue and blubber samples from killer whales in Prince William Sound during the summer in 1994 and 1995. Tissue biopsies of killer whales were taken in summer 2001 in waters around Steller sea lion rookeries and major haulouts along the central Alaska coastline from Resurrection Bay to Seguam Pass.

In all, 17 tissue biopsies were obtained from 11 different groups of whales including 11 suspected resident whales from six groups, four suspected transient whales from four groups and two suspected o shore animals from one group. A small amount of skin and underlying blubber were collected and frozen for stable isotope and fatty acid analysis.

Full-depth skin and blubber samples were obtained from fresh-dead adult killer whales as they became available. Researchers assessed the gross lipid and water.

• PI: Graham Worthy
• Full Title: An investigation into the possible relationship between Killer Whale predation and the continuing decline of the Steller sea lions population
• Research Goals: Describe the characteristics of killer whale blubber and skin, with the goal of further understanding the feeding ecology of this species, and in particular how killer whales might impact Steller sea lions. Assess the stable isotope signatures of killer whale skin samples to determine the trophic level at which killer whales are feeding. Analyze killer whale blubber samples using fatty acid signature analysis to determine whether killer whales are feeding on Steller sea lions.
• Award: $20,899

Competition between Steller sea lions and fisheries
We conducted a spatial and temporal analysis of fisheries data to assess the extent of overlap between groundfish fisheries and Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea. Such an analysis has never been undertaken before and has been noticeably absent from recent Biological Opinions addressing the effects of groundfish fisheries on Steller sea lions. Fisheries data (catch, effort and location) were combined with sea lion data (counts and foraging distances) to identify the potential degree of overlap in distributions (the joint probability of fisheries and sea lion probability). This analysis is needed to determine the effectiveness of fishery management measures intended to minimize impacts on Steller sea lions.

• PI: Alan Springer
• Full Title: Assessing the extent of competition between Steller sea lions and commercial fisheries
• Research Goals: Evaluate the extent of space and time overlap between groundfish fisheries and Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea.
• Award: $55,999

Distribution of juvenile pollock
The overall objective of our proposed research is to: 1) examine the horizontal and vertical distribution of age-1 and age-2 walleye pollock in the Gulf of Alaska (GOA) and eastern Bering Sea (EBS), 2) relate observed patterns to predominant physical (temperature, salinity, latitude, longitude, bathymetry) and biological (prey availability, diet) characteristics, and 3) examine the implications ofthese results on birds and mammals. To this end, we have: 1) collected age-1 and age-2 walleye pollock from the eastern GOA (August, September, 2001), 2) conducted a retrospective analysis ofhistorical (1990-1996) walleye pollock consumption in the EBS, 3) begun a series oflaboratory experiments designed to: a) define and quantify the effects of size and temperature on juvenile pollock food consumption and growth rate, and b) examine the effects ofvertical thermal gradients on vertical distribution ofage-1 and age-2 pollock, and 4) continued analyses of historical hydroacoustic data to relate patterns of sub-adult walleye pollock distribution to predominant physical (temperature, salinity, latitude, longitude, bathymetry) in the EBS.

• PI: Alan Springer
• Full Title: Distribution of age-l and age-2 walleye pollock in the Gulf of Alaska and eastern Bering Sea: sources of variation and implications for higher trophic levels
• Research Goals: 1) Examine the horizontal and vertical distribution of age-1 and age-2 walleye pollock in the Gulf of Alaska (GOA) and eastern Bering Sea (EBS). 2) Relate observed patterns to predominant physical (temperature, salinity, latitude, longitude, bathymetry) and biological (prey availability, diet) characteristics, and 3) examine the implications of these results on birds and mammals.
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• Award: $59,426

Potential of fishing-induced declines in local pollock abundance: Phase I
The main goal of this project was to determine if hydroacoustic data collected from sounders on commercial factory trawlers could be utilized to investigate temporal-spatial changes in the abundance and distribution of walleye pollock and the potential for local depletion in the Bering Sea. Since 2001 the PCC Research Center has funded this project for a total of $288,459.

In 2001, we developed a prototype data logger that interfaces with the ship’s 38 kHz echo sounder and captures the acoustic backscatter returns. In 2002, we installed it on three catcher/processors (Island Enterprise, Kodiak Enterprise, and Alaska Ocean). The system worked quite satisfactorily. The backscatter data were post-processed and integrated with observer and logbook data. Preliminary analysis showed that the hydroacoustic information is correlated with pollock catch (Dorn et al. 2002). In 2003, an additional 4 vessels (American Dynasty, American Triumph, Ocean Rover, Starbound) were equipped with acoustic data logging systems, bringing the total number of PCC vessels equipped to 7, or nearly half the fleet.

Work since 2005 concentrated on the analysis phase of the project. This work includes classifying the searching behavior of the vessel, integrating the acoustic biomass, identifying pollock aggregations detected while searching, and evaluating what inferences, if any, can be made concerning the rate at which those aggregations are reduced in abundance. The project developed sophisticated analytical tools for inferring the temporal dynamics of pollock spatial pattern using multiple data sources. This project was a cooperative program between the University of Alaska and the University of Washington and will result in two PhD dissertations: Haixue Shen at ����Ӱҵ and one by Steven Barbeaux at the University of Washington. Two research papers have been accepted for publication, several more are in preparation. As these reports become published, they will be sent to PCCRC. Numerous presentations of research results have been given, including a poster presentation at an international symposium on hydroacoustics in Bergen, Norway in 2008.

This project demonstrated the feasibility of installing acoustic data loggers on catcher/processors in the EBS pollock fishery to study localized depletion of pollock. There were clear changes in pollock school characteristics during the course of the A fishing season. However, it is not known whether these changes are due to biological characteristics, oceanographic effects, or fishing. Therefore, there will be need for time series of hydroacoustic data to determine whether changes are due to particular effects.

• PI: Terrance J. Quinn II
• Full Title: Deployment of an acoustic data logger on commercial fishing vessels to evaluate the potential of fishing-induced declines in local pollock abundance
• Research Goals: Conduct a “proof of concept” project to evaluate the feasibility of installing acoustic data loggers on catcher/processors in the eastern Bering Sea pollock fishery to study localized depletion of pollock.
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• Award: $288,058

Outlook for Russian pollock supply
Limitations imposed by language, out-of-date data, and unreported/illegal harvests, make it difficult to reach any definitive conclusions about Russian pollock harvests in 2001 or what harvests would be in 2002. Nevertheless, it appeared likely that Russian pollock quotas would be substantially reduced in 2002 by 748,000 metric tons, from about 1,678,000 tons to 930,000 tons. Even if this quota were fully harvested, which seemed unlikely given recent harvest rates of about eighty percent of total quotas, Russian harvests were predicted to decline substantially in 2002, presumably by several hundred thousand tons.

• PI: Gunnar Knapp
• Full Title: Outlook for Russian pollock supply
• Research Goals: What is the outlook for Russian pollock harvests in 2002? How can the American pollock industry assess the outlook for the future Russian pollock supply?
• Award: $$15,982

Kvichak Bay sockeye smolt study
Low returns of sockeye salmon to Bristol Bay in 1997 and 1998, and the failure of the peak sockeye salmon run on the Kvichak River in 2000 has generated great concern for the health and continued viability of the Kvichak River stock of sockeye salmon. These events, in tum, have spurred a renewed interest in determining factors that affect survival of sockeye salmon throughout their life cycle, and particularly the early marine phase of that cycle. In this study we provide detailed information on important habitats utilized by juvenile salmon as they migrate from the Kvichak River into and through Kvichak Bay, define their migratory route through Kvichak Bay, and assess food resources available during that migration. In 2001, during the period of sockeye smolt outmigration (mid May to mid June), juvenile sockeye salmon were sampled along several transects from shore up to 50 km offshore. Abundances of sockeye tended to decrease from shallow, nearshore areas with higher temperatures, higher turbidity, and lower salinities to deeper, offshore areas with colder, more saline, and less turbid waters.
Bottom depth, temperature, salinity, Secchi depth, and distance from shore are all strongly confounded, thus their potential effects on the distribution of salmon are difficult to separate. Sockeye abundances were not correlated with total zooplankton density or biomass, however, sockeye were correlated with selected zooplankters, such as the calanoid copepods Eurytemora and Epilabidocera. Eurytemora was the most important prey item, in terms of frequency of occurrence and number eaten. Mysid crustaceans dominated the prey in terms of biomass. There is some evidence that fish nearshore are feeding less than fish offshore in deeper, less turbid water.

• PI: Stephen Jewett
• Full Title: Factors affecting nearshore survival and production of juvenile sockeye salmon from Kvichak Bay, Phase I: Important habitat, migration routes, and food resources
• Research Goals: Provide detailed information not presently available on the migration of sockeye salmon smolt through Kvichak Bay. Identify key nearshore marine habitat and prey species preferred by sockeye salmon smolt.
• Award: $23,826

Sinking particles and pelagic food webs in the Southeast Bering Sea
The southeastern Bering Sea shelf is an economically and ecologically important system that is subject to substantial natural and human-induced change (National Research Council, 1996). Despite this, long term observations are limited and fragmentary in time and space, which severely restricts our ability to identify the effects of climatic variability on the ecosystem. The only long-term, comprehensive record of the changes in the ocean environment are observations collected from biophysical moorings (Stabeno et aI., 1998; 1999; 2001). Since 1995 Stabeno and collaborators have been monitoring site M2, over the Bering Sea middle shelf near 56° N, measuring temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, current speed, and meteorological conditions. A time-series sediment trap, which collects particles sinking out of the surface waters, has been deployed near that mooring since 1997, with support from NOAA during 1997-2000 and with support from the Pollock Conservation Cooperative Research Center for 2001. A parallel time series of zooplankton samples has also been collected. The carbon and nitrogen stable isotope composition and selected lipids, including wax esters and sterols, have been measured in the sediment trap and zooplankton samples. The composition of sinking organic material collected by the trap has reflected changes in oceanographic conditions during the 1997-2001 period.

• PI: Susan Henrichs
• Full Title: Sinking particles and pelagic food webs in the southeast Bering Sea: Keeping Mooring 2 Alive
• Research Goals: Scientists used sediment traps to monitor the role of plankton and other particles in changes occurring in the oceanography of the Bering Sea.
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• Award: $33,079

Chinook salmon bycatch DNA
DNA analysis of the origins of chinook salmon bycatch in Alaskan trawl fisheries: Chinook salmon bycatch in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea create problems for the groundfish fisheries, particularly the Bering Sea trawl fisheries. Salmon returns to western Alaskan systems have declined sharply in recent years and salmon are critical to the livelihood and culture of rural Alaskans. In addition, chinook salmon are the focus of a number of other issues ranging from Endangered Species Act concerns to allocations between the U.S. and Canada. Central to bycatch questions is the origin or destination of intercepted fish. Substantial effort has been and continues to be devoted to genetic studies of North American chinook stocks, with the objective resolving stock mixtures to their component stocks. However without data from all potential contributors --at least the predominant ones -- stock mixture analyses are not reliable. Missing from the baseline are data from Russian chinook stocks. We are collaborating with Russian geneticists to obtain genetic information for Russian chinook populations and to examine the genetic divergence between those populations and North American chinook salmon lineages that represent much of the extant chinook salmon genetic diversity. We are quantifying genetic variation using both microsatellites and mtDNA to determine if there are markers that would assist in separating Russian salmon from North American fish in groundfish bycatches. We also plan to use the data to examine the recent evolutionary history of chinook salmon.

• PI: Anthony J. Gharrett
• Full Title: DNA analysis of the origins of Chinook salmon bycatch in Alaskan trawl fisheries
• Research Goals: We are collaborating with Russian geneticists to obtain genetic information for Russian chinook populations and to examine the genetic divergence between those populations and North American chinook salmon lineages that represent much of the extant chinook salmon genetic diversity. We are quantifying genetic variation using both microsatellites and mtDNA to determine if there are markers that would assist in separating Russian salmon from North American fish in groundfish bycatches.
• Award: $183,303

The quality of commercial fish species in Steller sea lion habitat units
The western stock of Steller sea lions (SSLs) has decreased by about 81% over the past 30 years and is now listed as "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act. Evidence suggests links between low juvenile survival and nutrient limitations (i.e. diets of low quantity, quality, and diversity). Diets of SSLs are diverse and include species important to commercial fisheries in Alaska. Thus, fishing activity in haulout areas is assumed to affect the ability of SSLs to secure food. Based primarily on assumptions about SSL foraging behavior and prey/habitat use, the National Marine Fisheries Service recently imposed restrictions on trawl fishing in 10 nmi radii around SSLs haulouts. The potential for competition between fisheries and marine mammals exists if increased seasonal or age-specific energetic demands of marine mammals coincide with temporal and spatial scarcity of prey resulting from commercial fisheries. We are proposing to determine the seasonal quality of fish species around key SSL habitat so accurate models can be derived to understand the level of interaction with commercial resources. These data will be of practical importance to fisheries managers by providing basic knowledge of the relative quality of fish available as prey for SSLs. This information will also be applicable towards future studies concerned with the transfer of energy within the fish community to better understand the growth and survival of commercially important fishes. Ultimately, this data will be important for commercial fishermen who are now affected by regulations based on inadequate information about SSL–prey interactions. SSL habitat around Kodiak Island will be a representative study site due to its central location to the SSLs decline and the great impact no-trawl zones around SSL haulouts have on the local fishing industry. Results garnered from the studies around Kodiak Island will also be applicable to other important SSL habitat in the western region.

• PI: Robert Foy
• Full Title: Quality of commercial fish species in Steller sea lion habitat units
• Research Goals: We are proposing to determine the seasonal quality of fish species around key SSL habitat so accurate models can be derived to understand the level of interaction with commercial resources.
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• Award: $55,709

Do Steller sea lions have enough to eat?
Steller sea lions at the Pribilof Islands consume principally walleye pollock in winter-spring and flatfishes in fall-winter. Other common prey species include Pacific cod, octopus, sculpins, and skates. These all tend to be low-fat forage species and are considered to be less nutritious than species such as herring, capelin, sand lance, and salmon, which occur rarely in sea lion diets at the Pribilofs. We propose to evaluate the "junk-food hypothesis," namely that diets high in prey of low nutritional quality impose physiological costs to wild sea lions that may be detrimental to the health of individuals. The measure of physiological cost will be levels of cortisol, a sensitive indicator of stress. Cortisol will be determined in scats collected from haulouts and rookeries at the Pribilofs in summer, fall, winter, and spring. Hormone levels will be compared to data on sea lion diets and the energy density of prey, and evaluated in relation to hormone levels in other wild populations and in captive animals in controlled feeding trials. Diets, in terms of energy consumption, will be further evaluated using bioenergetic models of Steller sea lions. The results will provide information on the adequacy of the forage base at the Pribilofs in maintaining healthy individuals and populations of sea lions in the current meteorological/oceanographic regime. The study also will help to answer the contentious questions of whether there are too many or too few pollock, and whether large protected areas, such as the Pribilof Islands Habitat Conservation Area, are sufficient to ensure adequate prey resources for sea lions.

• PI: Alan Springer
• Project#: 00-07
• Award: $87,051

Keeping Mooring 2 Alive-Biophysical

Full Title: Keeping Mooring 2 alive: Continuing long-term biophysical measurements over the southeastern Bering Sea shelf

The M2 mooring is serviced every three to six months depending on February sea ice conditions. The M2 biophysical mooring was deployed from the Miller Freeman (MF02-05) during 28 April- 11 May 2002. The mooring was recovered and redeployed during 6-17 October 2002 from the CCGS Sir Wilfrid Laurier.

The biophysical mooring deployed in October will be recovered in either February or April 2003. Data processing of CTD, current meters, fluorescence and nitrate data for early 2002 are in progress. Data from summer 2002 are awaiting post-retrieval conductivity and fluorescence calibrations to complete processing. All prior data from the M2 location are displayed on the NOAA/PMEL website.

• PI: Terry Whitledge

Hydrographic data analysis
We analyzed records of salinity and temperature collected on Pollock fishing boats in the Southeast Bering Sea during the fishing seasons of 2000 and 2001. We hoped to use statistical analysis techniques to elucidate correlations of the water mass structure with catch and by catch data. The salinity and temperature data are collected from Conductivity-Temperature-Depth (CTD) recorders attached to fishing nets during normal fishing operations. We are in the process of evaluating the utility of using water mass characteristics to identify regions of high catch and by catch.

In 2001, the catch quotas for Bering Sea Pollock are 1.4 million metric tons, which will account for three-quarters of the Bering Sea ground fish catch in U.S. waters. Pollock is harvested exclusively with trawl nets from vessels that process at sea and by catcher boats that deliver to mother ship vessels and to shore-based processors. Pollock products include surimi, fillets roe and fishmeal. 

Alaskan Pollock, Theragra chalcogramma, weigh 1/2 to 2 pounds and average 12 to 20 inches in length. These Pollock are members ofthe cod family and are commonly referred to as Walleye Pollock. Alaskan Walleye Pollock represent the world's most abundant food fish and is second only to Peruvian anchovy in global landings since 1993.

• PI: David Musgrave
• Full Title: Analysis of hydrographic data collected by the Pollock Conservation Cooperative in the Bering Sea
• Research Goals: Analyze records of salinity and temperature collected on pollock fishing vessels in the southeastern Bering Sea during the 2000 and 2001 fishing seasons, to discover possible correlations between water mass structure and catch and bycatch data.
• Award: $23,133

Markets for Alaska Pollock Products
This project will provide a description and analysis of markets for Alaska pollock products. Two products will be prepared:

1) A report describing and analyzing markets for Alaska pollock products, including:

• Trends in Alaska pollock production, end-markets, trade and prices
• Key factors affecting Alaska pollock markets, including management changes, competing sources of supply, and changes in product demand
• Effects of the American Fisheries Act and the establishment of pollock cooperatives on markets for pollock products
• Potential market effects of future changes in Alaska pollock harvests, production and management
• Other factors which may affect pollock markets in the future
• Major market issues currently faced by the industry
• Priorities for future research relating to pollock markets

2) A database of historical and current pollock market information. This database will be posted on the Internet, and will be kept current (with funding to be sought from other sources).

The database and report will provide both industry and fisheries managers important reference and educational tools, will provide analysis of market issues of current importance to industry, and will facilitate consideration of market effects in analysis of the impacts of management decisions affecting Alaska pollock.

• PI: Gunnar Knapp
• Full Title: Markets for Alaska pollock products
• Research Goals: Description and analysis of markets for Alaska pollock products and creation of a database of historical and current pollock market information.
• Award: $18,346

Validation of mortality transmitters in sea lion
This project addresses the recovery of the Steller sea lion research priority in the PCCRC solicitation. The proposed work represents a significant and vital enhancement of an already funded project: "Determining Survival and Long-term Foraging Behavior of Juvenile Steller Sea Lions through Implanted, Satellite Mortality Transmitters" (funded by a North Pacific Marine Research Program grant to M. Horning). In connection with the already funded project, the proposed work will contribute to testing the leading causal hypothesis for the decline (or failure of the population to recover), as well as to the analysis of seasonality in Steller sea lion dive efforts, mortality, and the relationship of these parameters to fishing activity. 

Hence, we propose to implant dual redundant Satellite-linked Mortality Transmitters (SMXs) into ten rehabilitated California sea lions at the Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, CA. In a second step, we propose to implant dual SMX devices into six transient juvenile Steller sea lions, captured and temporarily held in the Alaska Sea Life Center under a separate project. All sixteen implanted animals will be released into the wild after observation periods ranging from two to eight weeks. After their release, the SMX devices will be monitored through service ARGOS for up to five years. 

The primary objectives of the proposed work are: 

• the refinement of surgical procedures for intraperitoneal implantation of SMX devices into California sea lions and Steller sea lions, based on procedure that were developed at the recent Steller Sea Lion Implant Workshop; 
• the validation of the absence of post-surgical complications resulting from the implantation procedures, at first on rehabilitative California sea lions, and then on transient Steller sea lions; 
• the validation of the concept of delayed transmission, implanted mortality transmitters for post-release survival monitoring of free-ranging sea lions.

In addition, we expect to: 

• provide an initial estimate of the failure rate of SMX devices, based on the implantation of the dual redundant SMX unit into ten rehabilitated California sea lions, and six juvenile transient Steller sea lions; and 
• contribute to the validation of a new experimental paradigm in the study of marine endotherms by relating body condition, indicators of health and immunocompetence determined prior to release, to individual survival.
• PI: Markus Horning
• Full Title: Validating the use of satellite-linked mortality transmitters in rehabilitated California sea lions. 
• Research Goals: Testing the leading causal hypothesis for the decline (or failure of the population to recover), as well as to the analysis of seasonality in Steller sea lion dive efforts, mortality, and the relationship of these parameters to fishing activity.
• Award: $60,460

Interactions among Steller sea lions, pollock, and herring
The background for this project is found in eight preceding years of herring surveys and four preceding annual estimates of pollock in Prince William Sound (PWS) conducted by the Prince William Sound Science Center. The pollock surveys suggested a temporal source of variability that could affect the accuracy of acoustic surveys for pollock. In addition, during herring surveys in March 2000, an infrared scanner detected intense nighttime foraging activity of Steller sea lions on the overwintering herring schools. This observation, subsequently published in Nature (Volume 411: 1013), indicated that the Steller sea lions in PWS targeted herring schools during the overwinter period to the exclusion of pollock. Consequently, funding from the Pollock Conservation Cooperative (PCC) was requested to explore the implications of these observations.

• PI: John Goering
• Full Title: Interactions among Steller sea lions, pollock and herring and an examination of variability associated with acoustic surveys of pollock
• Research Goals: Examination of the effectiveness of the infrared scanner for study of Steller sea lion foraging behavior.
• Award: $40,000

Capture and holding of transient juvenile sea lions
The Transient Juvenile Steller Sea Lion project allows for the longitudinal study of multiple animals for numerous complementary research programs. This would not be feasible with pure field work or captive approaches alone. So far, twelve animals have completed the program and contributed to more than a dozen projects with multiple principle investigators.

• PI: Shannon Atkinson & Michael Castellini
• Full Title: Capture and holding of transient juvenile sea lions
• ,
• Award: $34,000

Metabolic condition in Stellar sea lions
If we wish to promote the recovery of Steller sea lions in Alaska, we must be able to measure how animals respond to perturbations in its environment. Until we can effectively assess the physiological or metabolic condition of individual sea lions in the wild we will not be able to accurately judge the success of management measures intended to aid the recovery of this species. What is needed is an index of body condition that reflects not only the cumulative effects of weeks to months of foraging effort, but one that is integrative and reflects the net energy balance at any particular point in time. 

The primary goal of this study will be to develop an index or tool for the assessment of metabolic condition in free-ranging Steller sea lions based upon circulating hormone levels. We believe that we can develop such a tool through the measurement of a combination of hormones that are involved in the regulation of metabolism and food intake in mammals—thyroid hormones, cortisol and leptin. The value of this approach is that hormones represent an integrated response to a number of environmental and physiological factors that influence metabolism. Previous studies have used thyroxine and cortisol, along with several morphometric measurements to assess the well being of yearling Hawaiian monk seals that appeared to be malnourished. Their results suggest that a suite of measurements, including these hormones, provides a good indication of the physiology of a seal and its ability to adapt to suboptimal environments. Recent studies on terrestrial mammals have shown a close correlation between serum leptin levels and total body fat that could provide an index of body condition more easily monitored in free-ranging animals than the presently used deuterium dilution technique. 

This study will build upon a preliminary study on the effect of food deprivation on serum leptin concentrations and utilize blood samples collected during previous studies to investigate the interrelationships between hormone levels, body fat content and nutritional state. Other environmental effects, such as circadian changes in hormone production and seasonal change in hormone levels, will also be addressed. Ongoing studies on free-ranging Steller sea lions will provide additional samples to test the application of our indices on wild populations.

• PI: Shannon Atkinson
• Full Title: Thyroid hormones and plasma leptin concentrations during food deprivation and satiety: use as an index of metabolic condition in free-ranging Steller sea lions
• Research Goals: Develop an index or tool for the assessment of metabolic condition in free-ranging Steller sea lions based upon circulating hormone levels.
• ,
• Award: $51,388

NOSB Western Alaska Support
The National Ocean Sciences Bowl (NOSB) was established in 1998 by the Consortium for Oceanographic Research and Education with support from the National Marine Educators Association. NOSB is a quiz-bowl in which high school teams from around the United states compete with one another answering questions about oceanography. This project will support high school teams from Western Alaska competing in the NOSB.

• PI: Susan Sugai
• Award: $13,795

Western Alaska Tech Training
The Marine Advisory Program will respond to needs and continue to deliver training in seafood technology and marketing that is directly applicable to communities in Western Alaska (defined as east of Atka and north to Kotzebue.) The long term goal of the project is to increase the value of the seafood industry to residents of Western Alaska through capacity building and vertical integration of seafood processing and marketing.

With low salmon and herring prices and high freight, fuel and power costs, Western Alaska communities are challenged to increase the value of their fishery resources and diversify their economic base through involvement in processing and marketing activities. Numerous small, community-based seafood processing operations are being established in these coastal villages. Establishing and remaining successful as a small, community processing facility requires technical training in seafood handling, processing, packaging, refrigerating, shipping, marketing, personnel management, business planning and management. The Marine Advisory Program has a long history of offering technical training to seafood processing operations. This funding will support the high costs and limited availability of training and technical assistance in this part of the state.

Residents and communities in Western Alaska will see economic benefits from training in seafood processing, business and marketing as more coastal processing operations are successful.

• PI: Paula Cullenberg
• Award: $105,989

Fishes, catches, Science Book
Funds were received for the finishing work on a new book, Fishes, Catches and Science of Alaska Seas. First, the P.I. scanned and digitized relevant drawings from published literature with permission of the copyright holders. A professional artist drew a series of illustrations in a unifying format from the published illustrations. Second, a copy editor familiar with the fisheries literature edited the text to help put the writing in plain and correct English.

����Ӱҵ-UW Seminar Exchange
The goal of this project is to provide support for University of Washington faculty to come to ����Ӱҵ-SFOS for seminars and to work with students, staff and faculty on fisheries related projects.  Dr. Tim Essington  from the UW College of the Environment, came to CFOS to present a talk about "The Promise and Limits of Multi-species Fisheries Management Sponsored by the PCCRC".

Wakefield Symposium Support
Alaska Sea Grant requested funds to provide salary support for the production of the peer reviewed proceedings for the 28th Lowell Wakefield Fisheries Symposium, Responses of Arctic Marine Ecosystems to Climate Change, being held March 26-29, 2013. 

The Wakefield Symposium series has become a top-class international venue for circumpolar, fisheries-related issues, typically attracting more than 100 participants from Alaska, the U.S., Canada, and other nations. Symposium are planned to provide timely information on issues important to fisheries managers, and to identify key issues or data gaps that may drive or prioritize.

Undergraduate experimental learning

Long title: Increasing experimental learning opportunities for undergraduate students in Fisheries at the University of Alaska Fairbanks

The goal of this proposed project is to enhance and expand the active learning program in the Fisheries Division of the ����Ӱҵ( ����Ӱҵ) School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences (SFOS). Within Alaska’s unique environment, this program will give undergraduate students opportunities to participate in fisheries research and management in occupational and research settings, expand student’s professional development through mentorship, encourage pursuit of graduate studies, and better prepare them for their future careers in fisheries. We propose: (1) to give undergraduate students occupational experience in fisheries management and research settings through cooperation with Alaska agencies, industry, and Alaska Native corporations; (2) to provide research and mentoring opportunities for undergraduate students within ����Ӱҵ SFOS Oceanography and Marine Biology programs; (3) create an undergraduate symposium that will highlight student research and hands-on learning experiences and provide opportunities for students to present their research results in professional settings (society meetings); and (4) facilitate involvement and recruitment of rural Alaskan students in the program through participation in an NSF-sponsored field course for Alaska high school students that applies towards undergraduate credit at ����Ӱҵ (Nunivak Island Science Camp). Recognizing that Alaska’s resources and its fishing and seafood industries are the most vibrant, healthy, and sustainable in the world, it is critical that we provide students with the training to serve the health of these fisheries and meet the challenges of future environmental and institutional changes. The funding we request provides support for education and training of undergraduate students in fisheries, contributing to life-long learning of students whose work will play a vital role in the long term health of Alaska’s precious fisheries resources.

• PI: Amanda Rosenberger
• Award: $95,976

Graduate student travel awards

Full title: Matt Myers Memorial Graduate Student Travel Fund

This paper is being put forth to PCCRC to honor Matthew (Matt) Myers, a Ph.D. candidate in University of Alaska Fairbanks’ ( ����Ӱҵ) School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences (SFOS), who died recently in the process of being trained for scientific diving certification. The proposal is to develop a travel fund in Matt’s name, for graduate student travel. The Matt Myers Memorial Graduate Student Travel Fund would award two $1,000 travel awards annually to students, with a preference towards students in marine biology or fisheries. While it would be nice to create such an award with a legacy, this proposal is to develop the travel fund for an initial five year period.

The Alaska Seafood Industry K-12 Curriculum
����Ӱҵ faculty members Marilyn Sigman and Terry Johnson propose to partner with Elizabeth Trowbridge, Education Director for the proposed sub-awardee the Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies, to develop a K-12 curriculum about the Alaska seafood industry and the harvest of seafood as a renewable, sustainable natural resource for use by the Pollock Conservation Cooperative Research Center. A four year project is proposed with development of a curriculum framework in Year 1, development and piloting of middle school and high school units and a prototype resource kit for each unit in Year 2, and dissemination of the units as new units of Alaska Sea Grant's Alaska Seas and Rivers (AS&R) curriculum online and as kits in Years 3 and 4. The methods used will be those used to revise the AS&R curriculum during 2007-2009 and to successfully disseminate it for use in Alaskan schools.

• PI: Marilyn Sigman & Terry Johnson
• Full Title: A collaborative proposal: Symposium on re-authorization of the Magnuson-Stevens Act and enhancing the role of regional fishery management councils
• Award: $40,219

Symposium on MSFCMA Reauthorization
The goal of managing fisheries to conserve marine ecosystems is widely shared, but there have been sharp disagreements about the best ways to achieve it. In September 2005, following nearly a decade of debate on how to shape national policy, a panel of respected scientists and managers was convened to make recommendations based on their extensive experience in the North Pacific Fishery Management Council process. Recognized internationally as a “gold standard” in ecologically sensitive, science-based management, the North Pacific Council was a natural place to look for lessons from success.

•  PI: Gunnar Knapp
• A collaborative proposal: Symposium on re-authorization of the Magnuson-Stevens Act and enhancing the role of regional fishery management councils.
• Award: $31,340

Instruction in Fisheries Management
Funds made available through the Pollock Conservation Cooperative Research Center enabled the instruction of students and fishery professionals in techniques for decision making. The course was offered as a special topic, stacked 493 and 693 options and cross-listed with Natural Resource Management. The course title was "Decision-Making in Resource Management: Focus on the North Pacific and Bering Sea Fisheries". Seven students completed the course; four were graduate students in the fisheries program at ����Ӱҵ, and three were fisheries professionals with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game interested in continuing education. The course included lectures and hands-on practice with decision-making software in a computer lab. Students researched selected fisheries problems related to the North Pacific and Bering Sea, outlined their individual problem in a hierarchical structure, assigned weights of importance to issues using expert judgment, developed a prioritized list of options to address issues, and conducted a sensitivity analysis on the outcome. Based on student projects and comments, the course fulfilled expectations and may be judged as a success. Interestingly, the lecture topics that received the greatest number of requests for additional time were, "Integrating socioeconomics, politics and science in decision making" and "Group decision-making techniques" --topics not normally covered in traditional fisheries course work.

• PI: Margaret Merritt
• Full Title: Instruction in Fisheries Management
• ,
• Award: $33,795

Book full title: Fishing for Pollock in a Sea of Change: A Historical Analysis of the Bering Sea Pollock Fishery

Alaska pollock support one of the largest fisheries in the world. It is the biggest fishery where catches are used for human consumption. Because of the American Fisheries Act and other factors, today the pollock fishery is in an unparalleled period of stability, where fishing operations have been given increased flexibility and have responded with increased responsibility. In this book, authors Strong and Criddle relate the history of the Bering Sea pollock fishery and its management from World War II to present. Anecdotes from fishermen and fishery managers, and numerous graphs and color photos, help tell the story of why the pollock fishery is a success and how close it came to being an economic disaster.

• PI: Keith Criddle
• Award: $20,800